Photonic Integrated Circuits

 

Photonic Integrated Circuits

Hundreds of Advanced Optical Functions in a Tiny Package​

Infinera pioneered photonic integration with the industry’s first large-scale PIC in 2005 and continues to lead the industry with its sixth-generation PIC in ICE6. Leveraging high-performance indium phosphide (InP), Infinera’s PICs integrate a wide range of optical functions on a single chip. This reduces cost, footprint, and power consumption while improving performance and reliability. In addition, Infinera has invested heavily to build its own state-of-the-art indium phosphide PIC fab and is the only equipment manufacturer to have done so. In addition to the obvious cost advantages of this vertical integration, it enables fast redesigns for optimized performance, tight quality control, and a faster ramp to volume for new technologies and products such as our sixth-generation Infinite Capacity Engine (ICE6).

Highlights

High-performance InP​

Integrates components to deliver hundreds of functions that enable up to 800G per wavelength​.

Open

Fine-grained carrier control enables operation over any line system​.

Super-channels

Efficient super-channels reduce fiber complexity while increasing fiber efficiency​.

Routable and sliceable ​

Route N x 100G circuits within a super-channel in any direction over any distance with individual coherent modulation profiles​.

Innovation on Fast Forward

The Infinite Capacity Engine family of optical engines delivers scalable multi-terabit super-channel capacity and industry-leading capacity-reach performance from metro to submarine distances. With each new generation, ICE incorporates cutting-edge innovations and step function increases in capacity, enabling network operators to scale their networks and keep pace with relentless bandwidth demand.

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OVERVIEW OF ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

2 1.1 OVERVIEW OF ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

Learning Objectives

Compare and contrast anatomy and physiology, including their specializations and methods of study

Discuss the fundamental relationship between anatomy and physiology

Human anatomy is the scientific study of the body’s structures. Some of these structures are very small and can only be observed and analyzed with the assistance of a microscope. Other larger structures can readily be seen, manipulated, measured, and weighed. The word “anatomy” comes from a Greek root that means “to cut apart.” Human anatomy was first studied by observing the exterior of the body and observing the wounds of soldiers and other injuries. Later, physicians were allowed to dissect bodies of the dead to augment their knowledge. When a body is dissected, its structures are cut apart in order to observe their physical attributes and their relationships to one another. Dissection is still used in medical schools, anatomy courses, and in pathology labs. In order to observe structures in living people, however, a number of imaging techniques have been developed. These techniques allow clinicians to visualize structures inside the living body such as a cancerous tumor or a fractured bone.

Like most scientific disciplines, anatomy has areas of specialization. Gross anatomy is the study of the larger structures of the body, those visible without the aid of magnification (Figure 1a). Macro- means “large,” thus, gross anatomy is also referred to as macroscopic anatomy. In contrast, micro- means “small,” and microscopic anatomy is the study of structures that can be observed only with the use of a microscope or other magnification devices (Figure 1b). Microscopic anatomy includes cytology, the study of cells and histology, the study of tissues. As the technology of microscopes has advanced, anatomists have been able to observe smaller and smaller structures of the body, from slices of large structures like the heart, to the three-dimensional structures of large molecules in the body.

Figure 1. Gross and Microscopic Anatomy. (a) Gross anatomy considers large structures such as the brain. (b) Microscopic anatomy can deal with the same structures, though at a different scale. This is a micrograph of nerve cells from the brain. LM × 1600. (credit a: “WriterHound”/Wikimedia Commons; credit b: Micrograph provided by the Regents of University of Michigan Medical School © 2012)

Anatomists take two general approaches to the study of the body’s structures: regional and systemic. Regional anatomy is the study of the interrelationships of all of the structures in a specific body region, such as the abdomen. Studying regional anatomy helps us appreciate the interrelationships of body structures, such as how muscles, nerves, blood vessels, and other structures work together to serve a particular body region. In contrast, systemic anatomy is the study of the structures that make up a discrete body system—that is, a group of structures that work together to perform a unique body function. For example, a systemic anatomical study of the muscular system would consider all of the skeletal muscles of the body.

Whereas anatomy is about structure, physiology is about function. Human physiology is the scientific study of the chemistry and physics of the structures of the body and the ways in which they work together to support the functions of life. Much of the study of physiology centers on the body’s tendency toward homeostasis. Homeostasis is the state of steady internal conditions maintained by living things. The study of physiology certainly includes observation, both with the naked eye and with microscopes, as well as manipulations and measurements. However, current advances in physiology usually depend on carefully designed laboratory experiments that reveal the functions of the many structures and chemical compounds that make up the human body.

Like anatomists, physiologists typically specialize in a particular branch of physiology. For example, neurophysiology is the study of the brain, spinal cord, and nerves and how these work together to perform functions as complex and diverse as vision, movement, and thinking. Physiologists may work from the organ level (exploring, for example, what different parts of the brain do) to the molecular level (such as exploring how an electrochemical signal travels along nerves).

Form is closely related to function in all living things. For example, the thin flap of your eyelid can snap down to clear away dust particles and almost instantaneously slide back up to allow you to see again. At the microscopic level, the arrangement and function of the nerves and muscles that serve the eyelid allow for its quick action and retreat. At a smaller level of analysis, the function of these nerves and muscles likewise relies on the interactions of specific molecules and ions. Even the three-dimensional structure of certain molecules is essential to their function.

Your study of anatomy and physiology will make more sense if you continually relate the form of the structures you are studying to their function. In fact, it can be somewhat frustrating to attempt to study anatomy without an understanding of the physiology that a body structure supports. Imagine, for example, trying to appreciate the unique arrangement of the bones of the human hand if you had no conception of the function of the hand. Fortunately, your understanding of how the human hand manipulates tools—from pens to cell phones—helps you appreciate the unique alignment of the thumb in opposition to the four fingers, making your hand a structure that allows you to pinch and grasp objects and type text messages.

CHAPTER REVIEW

Human anatomy is the scientific study of the body’s structures. In the past, anatomy has primarily been studied via observing injuries, and later by the dissection of anatomical structures of cadavers, but in the past century, computer-assisted imaging techniques have allowed clinicians to look inside the living body. Human physiology is the scientific study of the chemistry and physics of the structures of the body. Physiology explains how the structures of the body work together to maintain life. It is difficult to study structure (anatomy) without knowledge of function (physiology). The two disciplines are typically studied together because form and function are closely related in all living things.

Review Questions

1. Which of the following specialties might focus on studying all of the structures of the ankle and foot?

microscopic anatomy

muscle anatomy

regional anatomy

systemic anatomy

2. A scientist wants to study how the body uses foods and fluids during a marathon run. This scientist is most likely a(n) ________.

exercise physiologist

microscopic anatomist

regional physiologist

systemic anatomist

Critical Thinking Questions

1. Name at least three reasons to study anatomy and physiology.

2. For whom would an appreciation of the structural characteristics of the human heart come more easily: an alien who lands on Earth, abducts a human, and dissects his heart, or an anatomy and physiology student performing a dissection of the heart on her very first day of class? Why?

GLOSSARY

anatomy

science that studies the form and composition of the body’s structures

gross anatomy

study of the larger structures of the body, typically with the unaided eye; also referred to macroscopic anatomy

homeostasis

steady state of body systems that living organisms maintain

microscopic anatomy

study of very small structures of the body using magnification

physiology

science that studies the chemistry, biochemistry, and physics of the body’s functions

regional anatomy

study of the structures that contribute to specific body regions

systemic anatomy

study of the structures that contribute to specific body systems

Solutions

Answers for Review Questions

Answers for Critical Thinking Questions

An understanding of anatomy and physiology is essential for any career in the health professions. It can also help you make choices that promote your health, respond appropriately to signs of illness, make sense of health-related news, and help you in your roles as a parent, spouse, partner, friend, colleague, and caregiver.

A student would more readily appreciate the structures revealed in the dissection. Even though the student has not yet studied the workings of the heart and blood vessels in her class, she has experienced her heart beating every moment of her life, has probably felt her pulse, and likely has at least a basic understanding of the role of the heart in pumping blood throughout her body. This understanding of the heart’s function (physiology) would support her study of the heart’s form (anatomy).

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Huge ‘Lion’s Roar’ Superflare

Huge ‘Lion’s Roar’ Superflare Seen From Japan Should Be A Wake-Up Call For Earthlings

Our own Sun may be going through a quiet phase, but some stars out there are more active than ever. Astronomers in Japan are today reporting their detection of a huge “superflare” from a star that measured about 20 times larger than those emitted by our own Sun.

No comparable flare has ever been detected before, but since superflares are thought to be possible on our own Sun, the discovery is a rare chance to gather data—and a real wake-up call.

Meanwhile, if superflares around M-type stars are common then it’s perhaps unlikely that any kind of life could exist on exoplanets that orbit them. The radiation levels would just be way too high.

A regular solar flare is a sudden flash of increased brightness on a star close to a group of sunspots, which sometimes come with a coronal mass ejection (CME) and cause massive magnetic storms.

A superflare is a very strong explosion with energies up to 10,000 times that of typical solar flares. “Solar flares are sudden explosions that emanate from the surfaces of stars, including our own Sun,” said Kosuke Namekata, first author of a new paper published in Publications of the Astronomical Society of Japan. “On rare occasions, an extremely large superflare will occur. These result in massive magnetic storms, which when emitted from our Sun can affect the Earth’s technological infrastructure.”

Where was the superflare detected?

It was found at a star called AD Leonis (also called Gliese 388) in the constellation Leo, the Lion. It’s very close to Algeiba, one of the bright stars that makes up the Lion’s neck (see above).

About 16 light-years away, AD Leonis is a red dwarf or “M-type” star. It’s cooler than our Sun, which means more flares.

The most common stars in the universe, red dwarfs are main-sequence stars that burn hydrogen like the Sun, burning hydrogen, but they’re substantially cooler, dimmer; redder and smaller.

The researchers from Kyoto University's Graduate School of Science and the National Astronomical Observatory of Japan—who spent a week looking at AD Leonis—expected a number of these flares to be large, but were astounded to detect a superflare on their very first night of observations.

How was the superflare detected?

The superflare was one of 12 flares around AD Leonis detected by astronomers using Kyoto University’s 3.8 meter Seimei Telescope atop Okayama mountain west of Kyoto, Japan.

Light from excited hydrogen atoms in the superflare indicated that there were roughly 10 times more high-energy electrons than seen in typical flares from our Sun.

“This is the first time this phenomenon has been reported, and it’s thanks to the high precision of the Seimei Telescope,” said Namekata.

Why are superflares a warning to Earth?

Magnetic solar storms and superstorms caused by solar flares and increased activity on the Sun—collectively called “space weather”—are potentially a major threat to modern life on Earth. In particular, the charged particles that stream towards Earth as hot ionised gas can, have, and will again affect satellites, aviation, power grids and communication.

“More information on these fundamental stellar phenomena will help us predict superflares, and possibly mitigate magnetic storm damage here on Earth,” said Kazunari Shibata, who led the study.

How do superflares affect the search for life beyond Earth?

Many M-type stars are known to intermittently let-off huge flares and outbursts that start to sweep away any planet’s atmosphere, which all but precludes the existence of life on any orbiting planets.

If superflares around such stars are common, then that goes double. “We may even be able to begin understanding how these emissions can affect the existence—or emergence—of life on other planets,” said Shibata.

Previous research indicates that flares from the youngest red dwarf—approximately 40 million years old—are 100 to 1,000 times more energetic than when the stars are older. 

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Our Sun - 5 Year Time Lapse

5 Year Time Lapse Of Our SUN

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